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Physiognomy and Racism
by Aubrey Weese
In the 19th century physiognomy, the study of how the outward appearance relates to the inner character, captured the interest of many anthropologists and was used to support racial theories. However, the science was not invented during the 19th century, it was merely revived, enlarged upon, and given it's name. We have records that the ancient people, especially the Chinese and Greeks, studied the face.
In China, Confucius said, "Look into a person's pupils. He cannot hide himself" (Zebrowitz 2). Face reading in China, or "the medicine of systematic correspondence," was developed after the period of the Warring States and was related to their theories of yin and yang. In China, "People with yang faces, which correspond in most respects to the brachycephalic facial type…were said to be more strong, active and extraverted than people with yin faces, which correspond to the dolichocephalic facial type" (Zebrowitz 49).
In Greece, a lengthy treatise on face-reading, which has been attributed to Aristotle, said things like
"Men with small foreheads are fickle, whereas if they are rounded or bulging out the owners are quick-tempered. Straight eyebrows indicate softness of disposition, those that curve out toward the temples, humor and dissimulation. The staring eye indicates impudence, the winking indecision. Large and outstanding ears indicate a tendency to irrelevant talk or chattering" (Zebrowitz 2).
Physiognomic principles were also incorporated into Greek theatre, where actors wore face masks that represented their personalities. "A man of sorrows, such as Oedipus, would have a long face" (Zebrowitz 3). The mathematician Pythagorus would even turn pupils away from his academy if "their facial appearance was not suited to the profitable study of mathematics" (Zebrowitz 3), and the philosopher Plato believed that "beauty of form generally indicates beauty of mind" (Jabet).
In the Middle Ages, the science was still popular, but it became degenerated. "While the earlier classical physiognomy was chiefly descriptive, the later medieval studies particularly developed the predictive and astrological side, their treatises often digressing into prophetic folklore and magic" (Britannica). Because of this, by the time of Queen Elizabeth, face reading had fallen into such disrepute, that the queen even "decreed that anyone claiming to have knowledge of physiognomy or 'fantastical imaginations' should be 'stripped naked from the middle upwards and openly whipped until his body be bloody'" (Young 9). It was also outlawed during the reign of George II.
But during the Enlightenment period, with it's high regard for lost classical knowledge, this science was picked back up again by scientists such as Johann Kaspar Lavater, Peter Camper and Cesare Lombroso. It became very popular during the Victorian era, and eventually influenced the Nazis, becoming part of their racial theory. Let us look one by one at these three scientists and how they contributed to the field.
Johann Kaspar Lavater (1741-1801)
Lavater was a Swiss priest, and is known as the inventor of physiognomy. He believed that,
"An exact relationship exists between the soul and the body, between the internal and the external of a man…the infinite variety of the souls or internal nature of a man creates an infinite variety in his body or externality…If such differences do exist then they must be recognizable; they must also be the basis for an exact science." (Zebrowitz 41).
Lavater set out to discover and document this "exact science." He wrote the books Essays on Physiognomy and One Hundred Physiognomical Rules, which became extremely popular in Europe. Essays on Physiognomy was reprinted for hundreds of years in German, French, English, and Dutch. In these books Lavater set forth many principles concerning the shape of the human face and head. The "form, height, arching, proportion, obliquity, and position of the skull, or bone of the forehead show the propensity, degree of power, thought, and sensibility of the man," wrote Lavater (Roach).
A page from Lavater's Essays on Physiognomy:
Fig.
1. An original countenance that will speak sensibility, timidity, perspicuity,
wit, and imagination. Not to be numbered among the strong, bold, unshaken,
and enterprising; but very considerate, cautious to timidity.
Fig. 2. A man of business. Undoubtedly possessed of talents, punctual honest, love of order, and deliberation. An acute inspector of men; a calm, dry, determined judge. To the middle of the mouth is an advancing trait, which speaks superiority in common affairs.
Fig. 3. A good head-Cannot be mistaken, not even in shade. Conceal the under part and Leave only the nose and forehead visible and signs of attention, love of order and certainty are apparent. The forehead, altogether, is too perpendicular for a productive, mind.
Fig. 4. The forehead is not so entirely exact and pure as to discover the whole capacity of his understanding. The harmony of the whole, especially the nose, mouth, and chin, denote a mind of extraordinary observation, research, and analysis.
Fig. 5. A noble forehead, a miracle of purity, the love of order, I might say, the love of light. Such the nose, such is all.
Fig. 6. Much is to be learnt from this shade. Takes little, gives much; this is particularly conspicuous in the too round outline of the lips, which is most defective. The most delicate lines have either not been remarked, or cut away. The upper part of the forehead is, also, something curtailed; otherwise this countenance is refined, discreet, capable of talents, taste, wit, and morals. (Lavater)
Lavater lived before the time of Darwin, yet he wrote about similarities he saw between the heads monkeys and humans, which would pave the way for later developments. "No skull of any beast certainly has so much the human form as this," said Lavater, yet "inconceivable is the distance between the nature of man and monkey." (Roach). However, if as Lavater believed, the character is found in the appearance, then it doesn't take much to get to the conclusion that man must be somewhat like a monkey if he looks like one. And, further, that those who look more like monkeys are more like them. This is the very conclusion that many will come to later.
Lavater helps this notion along elsewhere in his writing as well, when he relates facial characteristics of men to those of animals. "If any one would endeavor to discover the signs of bravery in man, he would act wisely to collect all the signs of bravery in animated nature, by which courageous animals are distinguished from others" (Zebrowitz 59). He then compares a lion and lamb and insinuates that men who look more like lions are brave and those who look more like lambs are cowardly.
Lavater's work was very influential in the art field during the eighteenth-century. "One of the most significant features of eighteenth century art, specifically with portraiture, was the relationship between physical appearance and character" (Hinchman). Lavater even said that he intended his work to be a source book for artists. He believed that "art too evidently reproves the childish and arrogant prejudices of those who pretend to disbelieve physiognomy" (Zebrowitz 5).
Lavater's physiognomy also became influential in literature, such as the book Mary Barton by Elizabeth Gaskell, published in 1848, where onlookers at a murder trial for the character Jem Wilson try to decide if he is guilty by examining the structure of his face.
"'I have seen a good number of murders in my day, but I have seldom seen one with such marks of Cain on his countenance'…'I am no physiognomist but I don't think his face strikes me as bad'…'only look at his brow, his downcast eye, his white compressed lips.'" (Roach).
People would go around quoting little axioms that Lavater coined in his essays, such as "the more the chin, the more the man," and "as are the lips so is the character." (Roach). Face reading became so popular during this era that in some places, "people went masked through the streets" (Zebrowitz 3) to keep from being scrutinized.
In these ways and more, Lavater's theories stretched beyond the bounds of
the scientific community to become part of the folk culture, and would influence
many thinkers in the years to come, even during modern times. His book was
republished in Switzerland as recently as 1940. In the psychology section
of the library one can find modern books on Physiognomy, such as Reading
Faces: Window to
the
Soul?
by Leslie A. Zebrowitz, published in 1997. This book is full of quotations
and a couple of illustrations by Lavater.
The author shows pictures of this plate at lectures, and says that no matter what country she is in, people chuckle when she remarks, "he looks highly intelligent." "The fact is that he looks quite simple minded to all observers. Why is that so? This is one of the questions that will be addressed by this book" (2).
Fool In Profile. J.C. Lavater (1879)
Essays in Physiognomy (Plate II, Figure 2).
Peter Camper (1722 - ?)
Peter Camper was a Dutch Christian monogenist who exhorted Europeans to "hold out a fraternal hand to the Negroes and to recognize them as the descendants of the first man to whom we all look to as a common father." (Poliakov 162). It was important to him to distinguish black men anatomically from the apes and show that they were genuine human beings, not a missing link in the evolutionary chain. He tried to do this by arguing that all human skeletons lacked the upper intermaxillary bone that apes had. (The intermaxillary bone is bone that fuses with other bones in human infants to become the upper jaw; it remains separate in apes and other mammals). Even when, in 1780, his contemporary Goethe showed him his theory was not quite true, he wouldn't believe it. "It looked as though, in this exchange, the Christian in Camper had got the better of the scientist," writes Poliakov. "Nevertheless, it was the same excellent Christian who was the first to make an observation from which others were to draw such fearful conclusions." (Poliakov 162).
Camper invented the facial angle. He was a painter and wanted to develop
a system to help other painters accurately portray the faces of different
races, especially Africans. While comparing the skulls
of a European,
a Kalmuck (Mongol), a Negro and an ape, he discovered something that would
help him do this. He found that, while looking at the profile of a face,
if one draws a line horizontally from the lower part of the ear to the lips,
and connects it with another line drawn vertically through the most prominent
part of the forehead, they will form an angle. By successively moving the
vertical line backwards to narrow the angle, one can draw the faces of humans
and animals as they step down the evolutionary ladder. "If I make the facial
line lean forward, I have an antique head; if backward; the head of a Negro.
If I still more incline it, I have the head of an ape; and if more still,
that of a dog, and then that of an idiot," said Camper (Foutz). These ideas
were published in drawing manuals around the end of the nineteenth century.
Alexander Walker, in his book Physiognomy founded on Physiology, published in 1834, explained that the reason the facial angle narrows is that the brain gets smaller, while the sensory organs become larger, in species that are less evolved.
"The two organs which occupy most of the face, are those of smelling and tasting; and in proportion as those parts are more developed, the size of the face in increased in proportion to that of the calvarium [the top part of the skull]. On the contrary, when the brain is large, the size of the calvarium is increased in proportion to that of the face. A large calvarium and small face indicate, therefore, a large brain with inconsiderable organs of smelling, tasting, masticating, etc: while a small calvarium and a large face show that these proportions are reversed" (51).
"Man," says Walker, "combines by far the largest calvarium with the smallest face; and animals increase in stupidity and ferocity, in proportion as they deviate from these relations" (53).
Therefore, men are supposed to be more beautiful, intelligent, and capable, the wider their facial angle is. The theory was applied to Greek statues, which were supposed to be the ideal of Aryan beauty. "The invaluable remains of Grecian art shew, that the ancients were well acquainted with these circumstances: they were aware that an elevated facial line formed one of the grand characters of beauty, and indicated a noble and generous nature" (Walker 54).
The statues of Greek gods and heroes all have a facial angle around 100°, the maximum angle you can draw before the face starts to look deformed. "That angle, according to Camper, constitutes the most beautiful countenance, and hence he supposes the Greeks adopted it" (Walker 56). The statues of Greek men with an "august character" had a facial angle of 90°. Most Europeans have a facial angle of 80°, and most Negroes have a facial angle of 70°. Lavater tried to use Camper's method to measure the facial angle of the Jews, but found that "the Jewish had such aquiline faces and noses, that is was impossible to get any type of calculation" (Calixte).
Some anthropologists used the terms orthognathism and prognathism to refer to roughly the same thing as facial angle. These terms describe how far the face projects forward when viewed in profile. Orthognathism is a condition of relatively small projection and prognathism is a condition of relatively large projection. As Thomas Huxley described it in his Lecture on The Fossil Remains of Man, delivered in 1862,
"Next, if we take the skull of a Turk, Greek or European, we may observe that the face hardly projects beyond the level of the forehead; but in an African skull the face projects, the nose projects, and so does the jaw…the first is known as orthognathism - a character of elevation; and the second as prognathism - a character of degradation. On these illustrations Camper, with the luminous and far reaching intelligence for which he wad distinguished, founded his facial angle, and his way to a scientific craniology."
Many scientists would use orthognathism and prognathism as a basis for determining which races were superior and which were inferior. John Beddoe, in his book The Races of Man, published in 1862, even developed an "Index of Nigressence" based on it. Using this index he determined that the Irish had skulls similar to Cro-Magnon men and therefore were a "kind of 'Africanoid' white race" (Sabbatini).
Blumenbach, the German founder of physical anthropology, highly criticized Camper's theory, saying "from the direction of the facial line, viewed laterally, not much is to be deduced," because Camper "has so arbitrarily and inconstantly used his two normal lines" (Walker 59). Walker didn't believe wholeheartedly in it either, and cited several exceptions to it in his book. However, he did believe it was useful for some purposes.
"It does not answer the purpose of distinguishing the varieties of the human race but, when applied to animals in general, as indicating some of their intellectual faculties, it acquires considerable interest, and when used to discover the finer forms of the head, as a guide to taste in the arts, it is of great value" (Walker 58).
However, the public as a whole accepted the idea uncritically as much more than an artistic guide. It became prevalent in literature, and example being the Sherlock Holmes novels by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. "When the archvillian, Moriarity, meets his adversary Sherlock Holmes for the first time, his immediate comment was, 'You have less frontal development that I should have expected'" (Wohl). It also became widely used in arguments to support the inferiority of the Negro and his similarity to apes. It was used this way to such an extent that writers today say things like, "Dutch anatomist Peter Camper determined that blacks were the missing link between the human an apes in the great chain of being" (Calixte), even though this was the very thing he was trying to refute with his intermaxillary bone argument. Also, they say that "[Camper's] notion of the (construed) similarity of African and beast fueled 'polygenist' theories" (Foutz), even though Camper himself was a monogenist. By inventing the facial angle, says Poliakov,
"Camper practically inaugurated the…sciences of craniology and cephalometry which flourished up to the first half of the twentieth century and led some scientists to measure intelligence by the cubic capacity of crania and others to boast of the superiority of the 'dolichocephalics' over the 'brachycephalics.' We must add that Camper warned the learned against adopting similar techniques, without ever dreaming of the pitch of the absurdity which they would reach in the West" (162).
Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909)
Lombroso was an Italian university professor and physician who "became worldwide renowned for this studies and theories in the field of characterology, or the relation between mental and physical characteristics" (Sabbatini). He applied these theories most directly to criminals.
Fingerprinting had not yet been invented during his time, so instead, body measurements and documentation of facial characteristics were used to identify criminals. "However, they were not used for psychological assessment of criminals. This was to be started by an ambitious and controversial Italian named Cesare Lombroso, who published a book titled Criminal Anthropology in 1895, in which he associated certain craniofacial features to criminal types" (Sabbatini).
Lombroso believed that one could tell a "born" criminal by his appearance. (He believed that only about 1/3 of the criminal population were born criminals). He compared the skulls of these criminals with the skulls of apes and "primitive" peoples. He concluded that born criminals were atavistic, meaning characteristics of less evolved humans had reappeared in them, giving them a more primitive brain structure. Atavistic criminals could be identified because they looked less evolved, and more like apes. "Cesare Lombroso…argued that born criminals could be recognized by their morphological resemblance to apes" (Zebrowitz 109).
In early human societies, Lombroso explained, the characteristics that are considered criminal would have been an advantage. "A strong desire to kill, for example, would have made them successful hunters and desirable mates. However, in civilized urban Europe, atavism, the reversion to evolutionary primitive traits, was likely to cause criminal behavior" (Body Politic).
These atavistic characteristics revealed themselves on the face and body in the form of what Lombroso called stigmata, or "abnormal forms or dimensions of the skull and jaw, [and] asymmetries in the face…[and] other parts of the body" (Sabbatini). Lombroso made a list of these stigmata in his book The Criminal Man, published in 1876.
Stigmata Related to an Atavistic Criminal:
- Deviation in the head size and shape from type common to race and region from which the criminal came.
- Asymmetry of the face.
- Eye defects and peculiarities.
- Excessive dimensions of the jaw and cheek bones.
- Ears of unusual size, or occasionally very small, or standing out from the head as do the chimpanzee.
- Nose twisted, upturned, or flattened in thieves, or aquiline or break-line in murderers, or with a tip rising like a peak from swollen nostrils.
- Lips fleshy, swollen and protruding.
- Pouches in the cheek like those of some animals.
- Peculiarities of the palate, such as are found in some reptiles, and cleft palate.
- Chin receding, or excessively long, or short and flat, as in apes.
- Abnormal dentition.
- Abundance, variety, and precocity of wrinkles.
- Abundance of the hair, marked by characteristics of the hair of the opposite sex.
- Defects of the thorax, such as too many or too few ribs, or supernumerary nipples.
- Inversion of sex characters in the pelvic organs.
- Excessive length of arms.
- Supernumerary fingers and toes.
- Imbalance of the hemispheres of the brain (asymmetry of cranium).
Lombroso's ideas were very influential in the police and judicial systems in Europe. As Renato M.E Sabbatini says in Phrenology: the History of Brain Localization, "Well until the [19]30s, many judges ordered 'lombrosian' anthropometric analyses of defendants in criminal charges, which were used against them by the prosecution in the trial procedures!"
Because Lombroso believed that criminal characteristics were biologically based, and not a product of environment or social circumstances, he believed that government should treat criminals more humanely. "It would be immoral, he maintained, arguing for the law to seek retribution from those who were biologically incapable of restraining from anti-social behavior" (Body Politic). Instead of punishing criminals, Lombroso believed that the government should adopt a eugenics program to prevent crime by abolishing criminal genes from the population. He was concerned about atavistic individuals in the European countryside and urban slums who were producing offspring with the same socially-undesirable traits as themselves. He believed that in an ideal society, these people should not be allowed to reproduce.
Lombroso's ideas effected the general public as well, as can be seen in the following extract from in the late nineteenth-century encyclopedia The Popular Educator, which is "a striking illustration of the belief in a relationship between the character and external appearance" (Woodrow). The picture shows the way a boy's face will change depending on what lifestyle he chooses to adopt: either a life of study, or a life of crime.
"The above engraving is intended to illustrate the effects which different modes of life have upon the human countenance…No one can deny that the 'human face divine' has in it something expressive of that which enters into and constitutes the character of the man. It may come out in the eye, or the lip, or the nose, or the general contour of the countenance…Carefully examine the above engraving. Look at the head and face of the child represented in the first figure. Who can divine what that young intelligence will become in the future in his life?…Even in the outlines of the infant countenance there may be the index of the future man. These outlines will become more marked and definite in the boy amid the studies and pursuits of the school."
This example shows the belief that although some of our facial features, and their corresponding character traits are "hard-wired" into us at birth, others can change according to the choices we make, so that in our later years we could have any one of a number of possible faces, depending on what kind of life we lived. Lombroso's other 2/3 of criminals (the ones that are not born criminals) would probably fall into this category. Abraham Lincoln apparently believed in this theory. Rose Rosetree reports in her book The Power of Face Reading that once he "was asked to appoint a certain man to his cabinet. When Lincoln declined, the reason he gave was, 'I don't like the man's face.' 'But the poor man isn't responsible for his face,' protested his advisor.' Lincoln disagreed. He said, 'Every man over forty is responsible for his face'" (19).
It is not hard to see how Lombroso's ideas would fuel later Aryan racial theories, especially with the help of Lavater's and Camper's ideas that non-white races, especially blacks, are closer to the apes. Now Lombroso adds to this the idea that criminals are closer to the apes as well, are destined to be that way by their genes, and should be bred out of society. It would be easy to conclude from this that non-whites therefore have more criminal-like characteristics, and are dangerous. In fact, Lombroso also did studies of hair and eye color which revealed that those with light hair and blue eyes are have less predilection to crime than those with dark hair and brown eyes. "Compared with regions of France and Italy in which light-haired people predominated, areas where dark hair was more prevalent…had a higher incidence of 'crimes of blood'" (Zebrowitz 109), reported Lombroso.
Conclusion
So, although physiognomy did not start out as a racist science, it is easy to see how it became one. As David Scott Foutz says in Ignorant Science, "The original physiognomic theory, that an individual's character is discernable by physical appearance, was soon expanded to the assumption that a whole people group (or "race") is discernable by physical appearance." To Europeans, racial groups that did not look like them had a displeasing appearance. Many writers described blacks as ugly and Europeans as beautiful, and because of the influence of physiognomy, this had a tremendous significance in their eyes. The difference was more than just "skin deep." George Curvier, at the end of the eighteenth century, said the following which Foutz says, "epitomizes the ultimate conclusion of physiognomics."
"The white race, with oval face, straight hair and nose, to which the civilized peoples of Europe belong and which appear to us the most beautiful of all, is also superior to others by it's genius, courage and activity. [There is a] cruel law which seems to have condemned to an eternal inferiority the races of depressed and compressed skulls…and experience seems to confirm the theory that there is a relationship between the perfection of the spirit and the beauty of the face" (Foutz).
J.J. Virey, a medical doctor, added to this, "All the ugly peoples are more or less barbarians, beauty is the inseparable companion of the most civilized nations" (Foutz).
Because skin color is the most noticeable difference in appearance, it became the main marker to distinguish the races. Many thinkers began to spiritualize this difference, as black has always been thought of as the color of evil, and white the color of good. "Darkness was said to imply depravity, and whiteness what said to imply nobility and a closer proximity to perfection" (Foutz). For this reason people like Daubenton could declare that "blacks were much more savage than the Indians, whose color approached that of whites" (Foutz). The theory arose that the sun had "disfigured" the physiognomy of darker races and therefore, their character, intellect, and morals had been disfigured as well. "The most delicate and subtle organs of the brain have been destroyed or obliterated by the fire of their native land, and their intellectual faculties have been weakened," said Cornelius dePauw (Foutz).
Thus, the racialists came to believe that
"Physical differences (from Europeans) entail 'damage' to brain and body which is not recoverable. This notion of 'damage' to the brain clearly precludes expectation of restoration and fuels a very prolonged (and mistaken) series of speculations regarding 'brain size' whereby permanent distinctions among people groups were attempted" (Foutz).
It was because of theories like these than when the Nazis came into power their Bureau for Enlightenment on Population Policy and Racial Welfare recommended classification of Aryans and non-Aryans on the basis of measurements of the skull and other physical features. Craniometric certification was required by law, and used to determine whether a person could marry, work, or should be sent to the death camps.
This tragic result of physiognomy has caused it to lose its popularity, and the science is largely unheard of today. But it was interesting to me to find out that there are still people out there who believe in it and practice it nowadays, although they try to do it without its racist implications. The introduction to the book The Power of Face Reading, published in 1998, says "Historically…we humans have been effectively paranoid (that is, intensely judgmental). Due to this pattern, face reading literature has been harsh in the extreme" (Khalasa). The modern face reading is supposed to do away with this judgementalism - getting rid of the bad and keeping the good, so to speak.
The book has a question-answer section where the author answers such questions as "My whole life I've suffered because of prejudice against my African-American features. Am I the only one to think that your so-called 'physiognomy' is just a fancy word for prejudice?" and "Surely you can't deny that certain features go with particular ethnic groups, can you?" (Rosetree 33). The author answers these questions with the position that the differences between facial features of individuals within any race are much larger than the differences between the races. She believes that if we look closely enough at people's faces we will begin to realize this, and it will actually help us overcome our racial stereotypes. She also states that her face reading has nothing to do with the color of the skin, just the shape of the facial features.
Whether or not one believes that physiognomy is scientifically creditable, it is interesting that it has stuck around so long and been used in so many different ways throughout the ages. The history of physiognomy is an excellent example of the way people can use "scientific knowledge" to back up just about anything they want to believe.
Works Cited
Body Politic. Cesare Lombroso.
Calixte, Alexandra and Trocha, Eduardo. Origins of the Aryan Myth. The IB Holocaust Project. 1997.
Encyclopedia Britannica. Physiognomy. 1999.
Foutz, David Scott. Ignorant Science: The Eighteenth Century's Development of a Scientific Racism. Quodlibet Journal. Volume 1 Number 8, December 1999.
Hinchman, Mark. When stereotypes go left: An African priest in 19th-century Senegal. Mots Pluriels. May 1999.
Huxley, Thomas. A Lecture on the Fossil Remains of Man. The Lancet. 15 February 1862, pp.166-7.
Jabet, George. Notes on Noses. London,1852.
Khalasa, Narayan Singh. "Forward to The Power of Face Reading." Boulder, Colorado. November 1997.
Lavater, Johann Kasper. Essays on Physiognomy. London, 1879.
Lombroso, Cesare. The Criminal Man. 1876.
Poliakov, Leon. The Aryan Myth: A History of Nationalist Ideas in Europe. Basic Books, Inc: New York, New York. 1974.
Roach, Paul. Wandering Between Two Worlds: Victorian England's Search for Meaning. 1999.
Rosetree, Rose. The Power of Face Reading. Women's Institute Worldwide: Sterling, Virginia. 1998.
Sabbatini, Renato M.E. Phrenology: the History of Brain Localization. Brain & Mind. March 1997.
Walker, Alexander. Physiognomy founded on Physiology. London, 1834
Wohl, Anthony S. Phrenology and Race in Nineteenth-Century England. The Victorian Web.
Woodrow, Ross. Extract from the Popular Educator (1890). 1999.
Young, Lailan. The Naked Face: The Essential Guide to Reading Faces. St. Martin's Press: New York, New York. 1993.
Zebrowitz, Leslie A. Reading Faces: Window to the Soul? Westview Press: Boulder, Colorado. 1998.
Pictures from (in order as they appeared):
- Carpenter, Douglas. Page From Lavater's Book.
- Zebrowitz, Leslie A. Reading Faces: Window to the Soul? Westview Press: Boulder, Colorado. 1998. (page 2)
- Woodrow, Ross. Lessons In Drawing. The Popular Educator. Cassell, London. 1890. (page 201)
- Woodrow, Ross. Images Related to Phrenology and Physiognomy. The University of Newcastle.
- Woodrow, Ross. Extract from the Popular Educator (1890). 1999.